Lecture Overview

Glucose
Glucose is absorbed through the ileum and Jejunum and when blood Glucose is found to be too high, beta cells within the pancreas release insulin hormones that target Body Cells. They bind to receptors on top of these cells because they are not fat soluble. When Insulin binds to these receptors, it triggers the Cells to absorb Glucose which lowers the amount of glucose in our blood. Insulin also targets the liver to Produce Glycogen which are hundreds of Glucose molecules bound together and is stored in the liver and muscles. When blood glucose levels begin to lower below the optimum level, the body then breaks down the glycogen stored in the liver and muscles into glucose and releases it back into the bloodstream. The way Glycogen is created is through the process of Dehydration where substrate glucoses turn into product Glycogen through the use of enzymes. When Dehydration occurs, we are able to lower our Blood Glucose level. Opposingly, we can use Hydrolysis that uses an Enzyme, H20 and ATP to convert glycogen back into many Glucose molecules in order to raise our Blood Glucose levels.We also went over Protein synthesis and how many things could effect a strand of DNA to mutate it through Pt Base mutations, Frameshifts that involve deletions, insertions and duplications. During Protein Synthesis, we go from DNA to mRNA to Amino Acids and the first stage is Transcription where the DNA, a two stranded nucleotide is changed into mRNA, a one stranded nucleotide through the work of RNA Polymerase that reads the strand from 3' to 5' and lays down the mRNA from 5' to 3'. RNA Processing then occurs where Splisosomes cut out introns and a G cap and a poly A tail is placed on the mRNA strand to protect it from nucleases that constantly eat nucleotides in order to protect the body from foreign viruses. We then go to Translation where mRNA enters a ribosome that is found on the rough part of the endoplasmic reticulum and is read by codons and goes through a sequence of APE, A as accept, P as peptide bond and E as exit to go on to create proteins.

Muscular System and Calcium
There are 2 types of proteins, Actin and Myosin.. Actin is thin and Myosin is thick. Actin is a Globular Protiein that is helix shaped and Myosin is a Linear Protein. The way a muscle works is for the Myosin heads to be able to touch the actins but to do that we require ATP. With ATP, when it binds onto the myosin head, it hydrolyzes into ADP and a Phosphorous molecule and energy that essentially spring loads the myosin to move whatever it is attached to and eventually move the entire muscle when this process occurs repeatedly. How do we create ATP you ask? Well, it all starts with food entering the mouth where salivary amylase and the duodenum breaks down carbohydrates into disacharides through disacharidases called sucrase lactase and maltase that break down glucose, fructose and galactose. We then use glucose through glycolysis in the cytoslol to create 2 three carbon molecules called pyruvates that generate 2 ATP and 2 NADHs and going into the mitochondria we have the kreb's cycle that change the pyruvates from 2carbons to six carbons to four carbons to create 2 ATPs, Nadhs, and FADH2 s and this then goes through oxidative Phosphorylation where the electron transport chain accepts an electron and attracts protons and going through chemiosmosis where the Hydrogen proton goes through ATP Synthase to create 36 ATPs in optimum conditions. Now we use Calcium to move Tropomyosin to expose myosin binding sites on actin heads and causes the muscle to move. We have salt to polarize this process with sodium, potassium and chloride that create an electrical current to move the myosin binding sites. This entire process stimulates muscle movement.